Hindu Mantras:

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However, this accent is not phonologically predictable, states Jamison. It may have played a role in helping preserve the integrity of the message and Sanskrit texts. Sanskrit as a language competed with numerous less exact vernacular Indian languages called Prakritic languages -.

किमत्र चित्रं यदि कामसूर्भूः R. The thirty million estimate is of , a manuscriptologist and historian. Short and long vowels are spelled and pronounced as follows.

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Sanskrit ; : saṃskṛta, Sanskrit: संस्कृतम्, also is a language of with a documented history of about 3,500 years. It is the primary of ; the predominant language of most works of as well as some of the principal texts of and. Sanskrit, in its various variants and dialects, was the of. In the early 1st millennium CE, along with and , Sanskrit migrated to , parts of and , emerging as a language of and of local ruling elites in these regions. Sanskrit संस्कृतम् Saṃskṛtam also written in various other. Language codes Sanskrit is an language. As one of the oldest documented members of the Indo-European family of languages, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in. It is related to Greek and Latin, as well as , , and many other extinct languages with historical significance to Europe, West Asia and Central Asia. It traces its linguistic ancestry to the , and the languages. Sanskrit is traceable to the in a form known as the , with the as the earliest surviving text. A more refined and standardized grammatical form called the emerged in mid-1st millennium BCE with the Aṣṭādhyāyī treatise of. Sanskrit, though not necessarily Classical Sanskrit, is the root language of many Prakrit languages. Examples include numerous modern daughter Northern Indian subcontinental languages such as Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Punjabi and Nepali. The body of encompasses a rich tradition of and texts, as well as , , , , technical and. In the ancient era, Sanskrit compositions were by methods of memorisation of exceptional complexity, rigour and fidelity. The earliest known inscriptions in Sanskrit are from the 1st-century BCE, such as the few discovered in and. Sanskrit texts dated to the 1st millennium CE were written in the , the , the historic South Indian scripts and their derivative scripts. Sanskrit is one of the 22 languages listed in the. It continues to be widely used as a ceremonial and ritual language in Hinduism and some Buddhist practices such as and. Historic Sanskrit manuscripts: a religious text top , and a medical text. The Sanskrit sáṃskṛta- is a compound word consisting of sams together, good, well, perfected and krta- made, formed, work. According to Biderman, the perfection contextually being referred to in the etymological origins of the word is its tonal qualities, rather than semantic. Sanskrit as a language competed with numerous less exact vernacular Indian languages called Prakritic languages -. The relationship between Prakrit and Sanskrit is found in the Indian texts dated to the 1st millennium CE. Patanjali acknowledged that Prakrit is the first language, one instinctively adopted by every child with all its imperfections and later leads to the problems of interpretation and misunderstanding. The purifying structure of the Sanskrit language removes these imperfections. Dandin acknowledged that there are words and confusing structures in Prakrit that thrive independent of Sanskrit. This view is found in the writing of Bharata Muni, the author of the ancient text. The early Jain scholar Namisadhu acknowledged the difference, but disagreed that the Prakrit language was a corruption of Sanskrit. Left: The on Indo-European migrations between 4000 and 1000 BCE; Right: The geographical spread of the Indo-European languages, with Sanskrit in the Indian subcontinent Sanskrit belongs to the. Mycenaean Greek is the older recorded form of Greek, but the limited material that has survived has a highly ambiguous writing system. More important to Indo-European studies is Ancient Greek, documented extensively beginning with the two the and the , c. This is the earliest-recorded of all Indo-European languages, distinguishable into Old Hittite, Middle Hittite and Neo-Hittite. It is divergent from the others likely due to its early separation. Discovered on clay tablets of central Turkey in cuneiform script, it possesses some highly archaic features found only fragmentarily, if at all, in other languages. At the same time, however, it appears to have undergone a large number of early phonological and grammatical changes along with the ambiguities of its writing system. Other Indo-European languages related to Sanskrit include archaic and classical c. The closest ancient relatives of Vedic Sanskrit in the Indo-European languages are the found in the remote region of the northeastern Afghanistan and northwestern Himalayas, as well as the extinct and — both. Colonial era scholars familiar with Latin and Greek were struck by the resemblance of the Sanskrit language, both its vocabulary and grammar, to the classical languages of Europe. It suggested a common root and historical links between some of the major distant ancient languages of the world. William Jones remarked: The Sanscrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. Evidence for such a theory includes the close relationship between the Indo-Iranian tongues and the and , vocabulary exchange with the non-Indo-European , and the nature of the attested Indo-European words for flora and fauna. The pre-history of Indo-Aryan languages which preceded Vedic Sanskrit is unclear and various hypotheses place it over a fairly wide limit. According to Thomas Burrow, based on the relationship between various Indo-European languages, the origin of all these languages may possibly be in what is now Central or Eastern Europe, while the Indo-Iranian group possibly arose in Central Russia. The Iranian and Indo-Aryan branches separated quite early. It is the Indo-Aryan branch that moved into eastern Iran and the south into the Indian subcontinent in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Once in ancient India, the Indo-Aryan language underwent rapid linguistic change and morphed into the Vedic Sanskrit language. Vedic Sanskrit Rigveda manuscript in , early 19th century The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as. The earliest attested Sanskrit text is the , a Hindu scripture, from the mid-to-late second millennium BCE. No written records from such an early period survive if they ever existed. However, scholars are confident that the oral transmission of the texts is reliable: they were ceremonial literature where the exact phonetic expression and its preservation were a part of the historic tradition. The Rigveda is a collection of books, created by multiple authors from distant parts of ancient India. These authors represented different generations, and the mandalas 2 to 7 are the oldest while the mandalas 1 and 10 are relatively the youngest. Beyond the Rigveda, the ancient literature in Vedic Sanskrit that has survived into the modern age include the Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda along with the embedded and layered Vedic texts such as the , and the early. These Vedic documents reflect the dialects of Sanskrit found in the various parts of the northwestern, northern and eastern Indian subcontinent. Vedic Sanskrit was both a spoken and literary language of ancient India. According to Michael Witzel, Vedic Sanskrit was a spoken language of the semi-nomadic Aryas who temporarily settled in one place, maintained cattle herds, practiced limited agriculture and after some time moved by wagon train they called grama. Parts of this treaty such as the names of the Mitannian princes and technical terms related to horse training, for reasons not understood, are in early forms of Vedic Sanskrit. The treaty also invokes the gods Varuna, Mitra, Indra and Nasatya found in the earliest layers of the Vedic literature. O Brihaspati, when in giving names they first set forth the beginning of Language, Their most excellent and spotless secret was laid bare through love, When the wise ones formed Language with their mind, purifying it like grain with a winnowing fan, Then friends knew friendships — an auspicious mark placed on their language. According to Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel P. While there are similarities, state Jamison and Brereton, there are also differences between Vedic Sanskrit, the Old Avestan, and the Mycenaean Greek literature. For example, unlike the Sanskrit similes in the Rigveda, the Old Avestan Gathas lack simile entirely, and it is rare in the later version of the language. The Homerian Greek, like Rigvedic Sanskrit, deploys simile extensively, but they are structurally very different. Classical Sanskrit The early Vedic form of the Sanskrit language was far less homogenous, and it evolved over time into a more structured and homogeneous language, ultimately into the Classical Sanskrit by about the mid-1st-millennium BCE. According to Richard Gombrich — an Indologist and a scholar of Sanskrit Pāli and Buddhist Studies, the archaic Vedic Sanskrit found in the Rigveda had already evolved in the Vedic period, as evidenced in the later Vedic literature. The language in the early Upanishads of Hinduism and the late Vedic literature approaches Classical Sanskrit, while the archaic Vedic Sanskrit had by the 's time become unintelligible to all except ancient Indian sages, states Gombrich. The formalization of the Sanskrit language is credited to , along with Patanjali's Mahabhasya and Katyayana's commentary that preceded Patanjali's work. The century in which he lived is unclear and debated, but his work is generally accepted to be from sometime between 6th and 4th centuries BCE. The Aṣṭādhyāyī was not the first description of Sanskrit grammar, but it is the earliest that has survived in full. Pāṇini cites ten scholars on the phonological and grammatical aspects of the Sanskrit language before him, as well as the variants in the usage of Sanskrit in different regions of India. The ten Vedic scholars he quotes are Apisali, , Gargya, Galava, Cakravarmana, , Sakatayana, Sakalya, Senaka and Sphotayana. The Aṣṭādhyāyī of Panini became the foundation of Vyākaraṇa, a. In the Aṣṭādhyāyī, language is observed in a manner that has no parallel among Greek or Latin grammarians. Pāṇini's grammar, according to Renou and Filliozat, defines the linguistic expression and a classic that set the standard for the Sanskrit language. Pāṇini made use of a technical metalanguage consisting of a syntax, morphology and lexicon. This metalanguage is organised according to a series of meta-rules, some of which are explicitly stated while others can be deduced. Father of linguistics The history of linguistics begins not with Plato or Aristotle, but with the Indian grammarian Panini. His systematic treatise inspired and made Sanskrit the preeminent Indian language of learning and literature for two millennia. It is unclear whether Pāṇini wrote his treatise on Sanskrit language or he orally created the detailed and sophisticated treatise then transmitted it through his students. The phonetic differences between Vedic Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit are negligible when compared to the intense change that must have occurred in the pre-Vedic period between Indo-Aryan language and the Vedic Sanskrit. The noticeable differences between the Vedic and the Classical Sanskrit include the much-expanded grammar and grammatical categories as well as the differences in the accent, the semantics and the syntax. There are also some differences between how some of the nouns and verbs end, as well as the sandhi rules, both internal and external. Quite many words found in the early Vedic Sanskrit language are never found in late Vedic Sanskrit or Classical Sanskrit literature, while some words have different and new meanings in Classical Sanskrit when contextually compared to the early Vedic Sanskrit literature. Louis Renou published in 1956, in French, a more extensive discussion of the similarities, the differences and the evolution of the Vedic Sanskrit within the Vedic period and then to the Classical Sanskrit along with his views on the history. This work has been translated by Jagbans Balbir. Sanskrit and Prakrit languages The earliest known use of the word samskrta Sanskrit , in the context of a language, is found in verses 3. Sanskrit co-existed with numerous other Prakrit languages of ancient India. The Vedic literature includes words whose phonetic equivalent are not found in other Indo European languages but which are found in the regional Prakrit languages, which makes it likely that the interaction, the sharing of words and ideas began early in the Indian history. As the Indian thought diversified and challenged earlier beliefs of Hinduism, particularly in the form of Buddhism and Jainism, the Prakrit languages such as Pali in Buddhism and Ardhamagadhi in Jainism competed with Sanskrit in the ancient times. However, scholars such as Dundas have questioned this hypothesis. They state that there is no evidence for this and whatever evidence is available suggests that by the start of the common era, hardly anybody other than learned monks had the capacity to understand the old Prakrit languages such as Ardhamagadhi. Colonial era scholars questioned whether Sanskrit was ever a spoken language, or was it only a literary language? Scholars disagree in their answers. A section of Western scholars state that Sanskrit was never a spoken language, while others and particularly most Indian scholars state the opposite. Those who affirm Sanskrit to have been a vernacular language point to the necessity of Sanskrit being a spoken language for the that preserved the vast number of Sanskrit manuscripts from ancient India. Secondly, they state that the textual evidence in the works of Yaksa, Panini and Patanajali affirms that the Classical Sanskrit in their era was a language that is spoken bhasha by the cultured and educated. Some expound upon the variant forms of spoken Sanskrit versus written Sanskrit. The 7th-century Chinese Buddhist pilgrim mentioned in his memoir that official philosophical debates in India were held in Sanskrit, not in the vernacular language of that region. According to Sanskrit linguist , Sanskrit was a spoken language in a colloquial form by the mid 1st millennium BCE which coexisted with a more formal, grammatical correct form of literary Sanskrit. The Indian tradition, states , has favored the learning and the usage of multiple languages from the ancient times. Sanskrit was a spoken language in the educated and the elite classes, but it was also a language that must have been understood in a more wider circle of society because the widely popular folk epics and stories such as the , the , the , the and many other texts are all in the Sanskrit language. The Classical Sanskrit with its exacting grammar was thus the language of the Indian scholars and the educated classes, while others communicated with approximate or ungrammatical variants of it as well as other natural Indian languages. Sanskrit, as the learned language of Ancient India, thus existed alongside the vernacular Prakrits. Many indicate that the language coexisted with the vernacular Prakrits. Centres in , , and were centers of classical Sanskrit learning and public debates until the arrival of the colonial era. According to — an Indologist and Buddhism scholar, Sanskrit became the dominant literary and inscriptional language because of its precision in communication. It was, states Lamotte, an ideal instrument for presenting ideas and as knowledge in Sanskrit multiplied so did its spread and influence. Sanskrit was adopted voluntarily as a vehicle of high culture, arts, and profound ideas. The Sanskrit language cosmopolis thrived beyond India between 300 and 1300 CE. Extant manuscripts in Sanskrit number over 30 million, one hundred times those in Greek and Latin combined, constituting the largest cultural heritage that any civilization has produced prior to the invention of the printing press. It is the predominant language of one of the largest collection of historic manuscripts. The earliest known inscriptions in Sanskrit are from the 1st-century BCE, such as the and. Though developed and nurtured by scholars of orthodox schools of Hinduism, Sanskrit has been the language for some of the key literary works and theology of heterodox schools of Indian philosophies such as Buddhism and Jainism. They speculated on the role of language, the ontological status of painting word-images through sound, and the need for rules so that it can serve as a means for a community of speakers, separated by geography or time, to share and understand profound ideas from each other. These speculations became particularly important to the and the schools of Hindu philosophy, and later to Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism, states — a scholar of Linguistics with a focus on Indian philosophies and Sanskrit. Though written in a number of different scripts, the dominant language of Hindu texts has been Sanskrit. It or a hybrid form of Sanskrit became the preferred language of Mahayana Buddhism scholarship. One of the early and influential Buddhist philosopher ~200 CE , for example, used Classical Sanskrit as the language for his texts. According to Renou, Sanskrit had a limited role in the Theravada tradition formerly known as the Hinayana but the Prakrit works that have survived are of doubtful authenticity. Some of the canonical fragments of the early Buddhist traditions, discovered in the 20th-century, suggest the early Buddhist traditions did use of imperfect and reasonably good Sanskrit, sometimes with a Pali syntax, states Renou. The and Mahavastu, in their late Hinayana forms, used hybrid Sanskrit for their literature. Sanskrit was also the language of some of the oldest surviving, authoritative and much followed philosophical works of Jainism such as the Tattvartha Sutra by. A 5th-century Sanskrit inscription discovered in Java Indonesia — one of earliest in southeast Asia. The combines two writing scripts and compares the king to Hindu god. It provides a to the presence of Hinduism in the Indonesian islands. The oldest southeast Asian Sanskrit inscription —- called the — so far discovered is near , , and it is dated to the late 2nd-century to early 3rd-century CE. The Sanskrit language has been one of the major means for the transmission of knowledge and ideas in Asian history. Indian texts in Sanskrit were already in China by 402 CE, carried by the influential Buddhist pilgrim who translated them into Chinese by 418 CE. By the early 1st millennium CE, Sanskrit had spread Buddhist and Hindu ideas to , parts of the and the. It was accepted as a language of high culture and the preferred language by some of the local ruling elites in these regions. According to the , the Sanskrit language is a parent language that is at the foundation of many modern languages of India and the one that promoted Indian thought to other distant countries. The Sanskrit language created a pan-Indic accessibility to information and knowledge in the ancient and medieval times, in contrast to the Prakrit languages which were understood just regionally. It created a cultural bond across the subcontinent. As local languages and dialects evolved and diversified, Sanskrit served as the common language. It connected scholars from distant parts of the Indian subcontinent such as Tamil Nadu and Kashmir, states Deshpande, as well as those from different fields of studies, though there must have been differences in its pronunciation given the first language of the respective speakers. The Sanskrit language brought Indic people together, particularly its elite scholars. Some of these scholars of Indian history regionally produced vernacularized Sanskrit to reach wider audiences, as evidenced by texts discovered in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. Once the audience became familiar with the easier to understand vernacularized version of Sanskrit, those interested could graduate from colloquial Sanskrit to the more advanced Classical Sanskrit. Classical Sanskrit is the standard as laid out in the grammar of , around the fourth century BCE. Its position in the cultures of is akin to that of and in Europe. Decline Sanskrit declined starting about and after the 13th-century. This coincides with the beginning of Islamic invasions of the Indian subcontinent to create, thereafter expand the Muslim rule in the form of Sultanates and later the Mughal Empire. There were exceptions and short periods of imperial support for Sanskrit, mostly concentrated during the reign of the tolerant Mughal emperor. Muslim rulers patronized the Middle Eastern language and scripts found in Persia and Arabia, and the Indians linguistically adapted to this Persianization to gain employment with the Muslim rulers. Hindu rulers such as Shivaji of the , reversed the process, by re-adopting Sanskrit and re-asserting their socio-linguistic identity. Scholars are divided on whether or when Sanskrit died. Western authors such as John Snelling state that Sanskrit and Pali are both dead Indian languages. Indian authors such as M Ramakrishnan Nair state that Sanskrit was a dead language by the 1st millennium BCE. According to Hanneder, a decline or regional absence of creative and innovative literature constitutes a negative evidence to Pollock's hypothesis, but it is not positive evidence. A closer look at Sanskrit in the Indian history after the 12th-century suggests that Sanskrit survived despite the odds. According to Hanneder, On a more public level the statement that Sanskrit is a dead language is misleading, for Sanskrit is quite obviously not as dead as other dead languages and the fact that it is spoken, written and read will probably convince most people that it cannot be a dead language in the most common usage of the term. Above from top: Isha Upanishad Devanagari , Samaveda Tamil Grantha , Bhagavad Gita Gurmukhi , Vedanta Sara Telugu , Jatakamala early Sharada. All are Hindu texts except the last Buddhist text. The Sanskrit language, states , was never a dead language and it is still alive though its prevalence is lesser than ancient and medieval times. Sanskrit remains an integral part of Hindu journals, festivals, Ramlila plays, drama, rituals and the rites-of-passage. It is a special, timeless language that lives in the numerous manuscripts, daily chants and ceremonial recitations, a heritage language that Indians contextually prize and some practice. When the British introduced English to India in the 19th century, knowledge of Sanskrit and ancient literature continued to flourish as the study of Sanskrit changed from a more traditional style into a form of analytical and comparative scholarship mirroring that of Europe. Modern Indic languages The relationship of Sanskrit to the Prakrit languages, particularly the modern form of Indian languages, is complex and spans about 3,500 years, states — a linguist specializing in South Asian languages. A part of the difficulty is the lack of sufficient textual, archaeological and epigraphical evidence for the ancient Prakrit languages with rare exceptions such as Pali, leading to a tendency of errors. Sanskrit and Prakrit languages may be divided into Old Indo-Aryan 1500 BCE-600 BCE , Middle Indo-Aryan 600 BCE-1000 CE and New Indo-Aryan 1000 CE-current , each can further be subdivided in early, middle or second, and late evolutionary substages. Vedic Sanskrit belongs to the early Old Indo-Aryan while Classical Sanskrit to the later Old Indo-Aryan stage. The evidence for Prakrits such as Pali Theravada Buddhism and Ardhamagadhi Jainism , along with Magadhi, Maharashtri, Sinhala, Sauraseni and Niya Gandhari , emerge in the Middle Indo-Aryan stage in two versions — archaic and more formalized — that may be placed in early and middle substages of the 600 BCE-1000 CE period. Two literary Indic languages can be traced to the late Middle Indo-Aryan stage and these are Apabhramsa and Elu a form of literary Sinhalese. Numerous North, Central, Eastern and Western Indian languages, such as Hindi, Gujarati, Sindhi, Punjabi, Kashmiri, Nepali, Braj, Awadhi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Marathi, and others belong to the New Indo-Aryan stage. There is an extensive overlap in the vocabulary, phonetics and other aspects of these New Indo-Aryan languages with Sanskrit, but it is neither universal nor identical across the languages. They likely emerged from a synthesis of the ancient Sanskrit language traditions and an admixture of various regional dialects. Each language has some unique and regionally creative aspects, with unclear origins. Prakrit languages do have a grammatical structure, but like the Vedic Sanskrit, it is far less rigorous than Classical Sanskrit. The roots of all Prakrit languages may be in the Vedic Sanskrit and ultimately the Indo-Aryan language, their structural details vary from the Classical Sanskrit. It is generally accepted by scholars and widely believed in India that the modern , such as Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi and Punjabi are descendants of the Sanskrit language. Sanskrit language's historical presence has been attested in many countries. The evidence includes manuscript pages and inscriptions discovered in South Asia, Southeast Asia and Central Asia. These have been dated between 300 and 1800 CE. The Sanskrit language's historic presence is attested across a wide geography beyond the Indian subcontinent. Inscriptions and literary evidence suggests that Sanskrit language was already being adopted in Southeast Asia and Central Asia in the 1st-millennium CE, through monks, religious pilgrims and merchants. The Indian subcontinent has been the geographic range of the largest collection of the ancient and pre-18th century Sanskrit manuscripts and inscriptions. Beyond ancient India, significant collections of Sanskrit manuscripts and inscriptions have been found in particularly the Tibetan monasteries , , , , , , , and. Sanskrit inscriptions, manuscripts or its remnants, including some of the oldest known Sanskrit written texts, have been discovered in dry high deserts and mountainous terrains such as in Nepal, Tibet, Afghanistan, Mongolia, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kazakhstan. Some Sanskrit texts and inscriptions have also been discovered in Korea and Japan. Contemporary distribution Sanskrit is a studied school subject in contemporary India, but scarce as a first language. In the , 14,135 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their. In the 2011 census, 24,821 people out of about 1. According to the 2011 national census of , 1,669 people use Sanskrit as their first language. However, on investigation, none of these claims have been verified. The state of in India lists Sanskrit as its second official language. Sanskrit shares many Proto-Indo-European phonological features, although it features a larger inventory of distinct phonemes. The consonantal system is the same, though it systematically enlarged the inventory of distinct sounds. The most significant and distinctive phonological development in Sanskrit is vowel-merger, states Stephanie Jamison — an Indo-European linguist specializing in Sanskrit literature. These mergers occurred very early and significantly impacted Sanskrit's morphological system. Some phonological developments in it mirror those in other PIE languages. For example, the labiovelars merged with the plain velars as in other satem languages. However, the secondary palatalization of the resulting segments is more thorough and systematic within Sanskrit, states Jamison. A series of retroflex dental stops were innovated in Sanskrit to more thoroughly articulate sounds for clarity. Vowels The cardinal vowels svaras i इ , u उ , a अ distinguish length in Sanskrit, states Jamison. The short a अ in Sanskrit is a closer vowel than ā, equivalent to schwa. In contrast, in Sanskrit, they are inherently long. The long r̥ is an innovation and it is used in a few analogically generated morphological categories. This is one of the oldest surviving and dated palm-leaf manuscript in Sanskrit 828 CE. Discovered in Nepal, the bottom leaf shows all the vowels and consonants of Sanskrit the first 5 consonants are highlighted in blue and yellow. Consonants Sanskrit possesses a symmetric consonantal phoneme structure based on how the sound is articulated, though the actual usage of these sounds conceals the lack of parallelism in the apparent symmetry possibly from historical changes within the language. The palatals are affricates in Sanskrit, not stops. The palatal nasal is a conditioned variant of n occurring next to palatal obstruents. The anusvara that Sanskrit deploys is a conditioned alternant of postvocalic nasals, under certain sandhi conditions. Its visarga is a word-final or morpheme-final conditioned alternant of s and r under certain sandhi conditions. Among themselves, both the vowels and consonants are ordered according to where in the mouth they are pronounced, going from back to front. Ruppel, The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit The voiceless aspirated series is also an innovation in Sanskrit but is significantly rarer than the other three series. While the Sanskrit language organizes sounds for expression beyond those found in the PIE language, it retained many features found in the Iranian and Balto-Slavic languages. An example of a similar process in all three, states Jamison, is the retroflex sibilant. The Sanskrit language accepts such alterations within it, but offers formal rules for the sandhi of any two words next to each other in the same sentence or linking two sentences. The external sandhi rules state that similar short vowels coalesce into a single long vowel, while dissimilar vowels form glides or undergo diphthongization. Among the consonants, most external sandhi rules recommend regressive assimilation for clarity when they are voiced. According to Jamison, these rules ordinarily apply at compound seams and morpheme boundaries. In Vedic Sanskrit, the external sandhi rules are more variable than in Classical Sanskrit. The internal sandhi rules are more intricate and account for the root and the canonical structure of the Sanskrit word. These rules anticipate what are now known as the and. The velar series k, g, gh alternate with the palatal series c, j, h , while the structural position of the palatal series is modified into a retroflex cluster when followed by dental. This rule create two morphophonemically distinct series from a single palatal series. There is an equivalence to terms deployed in Indo-European descriptive grammars, wherein Sanskrit's unstrengthened state is same as the zero-grade, guna corresponds to normal-grade, while vriddhi is same as the lengthened-state. The qualitative ablaut is not found in Sanskrit just like it is absent in Iranian, but Sanskrit retains quantitative ablaut through vowel strengthening. The transformations between unstrengthened to guna is prominent in the morphological system, states Jamison, while vriddhi is a particularly significant rule when adjectives of origin and appurtenance are derived. The manner in which this is done slightly differs between the Vedic and the Classical Sanskrit. Sanskrit grants a very flexible syllable structure, where they may begin or end with vowels, be single consonants or clusters. Similarly, the syllable may have an internal vowel of any weight. The Vedic Sanskrit shows traces of following the Sievers-Edgerton Law, but Classical Sanskrit doesn't. Vedic Sanskrit has a pitch accent system, states Jamison, which were acknowledged by Panini, but in his Classical Sanskrit the accents disappear. Most Vedic Sanskrit words have one accent. However, this accent is not phonologically predictable, states Jamison. It can fall anywhere in the word and its position often conveys morphological and syntactic information. According to Masica, the presence of an accent system in Vedic Sanskrit is evidenced from the markings in the Vedic texts. This is important because of Sanskrit's connection to the PIE languages and comparative Indo-European linguistics. This significantly impacted the evolutionary path of the Sanskrit phonology and morphology, particularly in the variant forms of roots. The verbal and nominal stems of Sanskrit words are derived from this root through the phonological vowel-gradation processes, the addition of affixes, verbal and nominal stems. It then adds an ending to establish the grammatical and syntactic identity of the stem. A Sanskrit word has the following canonical structure: Root + Affix 0-n + Ending 0-1 The root structure has certain phonological constraints. In contrast, the affixes and endings commonly do. A verb in Sanskrit has the following canonical structure: Root + Suffix Tense-Aspect + Suffix Mood + Ending Personal-Number-Voice According to Ruppel, verbs in Sanskrit express the same information as other Indo-European languages such as English. The Indo-European languages differ in the detail. For example, the Sanskrit language attaches the affixes and ending to the verb root, while the English language adds small independent words before the verb. In Sanskrit, these elements co-exist within the word. Word morphology in Sanskrit, A. Guna strengthened forms in the active singular regularly alternate in athematic verbs. The finite verbs of Classical Sanskrit have the following grammatical categories: person, number, voice, tense-aspect, and mood. According to Jamison, a portmanteau morpheme generally expresses the person-number-voice in Sanskrit, and sometimes also the ending or only the ending. The mood of the word is embedded in the affix. These elements of word architecture are the typical building blocks in Classical Sanskrit, but in Vedic Sanskrit these elements fluctuate and are unclear. This indecisiveness is likely linked to Vedic Sanskrit's attempt to incorporate accent. While roots are typical in Sanskrit, some words do not follow the canonical structure. A few forms lack both inflection and root. Many words are inflected and can enter into derivation but lack a recognizable root. Examples from the basic vocabulary include kinship terms such as mātar- mother , nas- nose , śvan- dog. According to Jamison, pronouns and some words outside the semantic categories also lack roots, as do the numerals. Similarly, the Sanskrit language is flexible enough to not mandate inflection. The Sanskrit words can contain more than one affix that interact with each other. Affixes in Sanskrit can be athematic as well as thematic, according to Jamison. Athematic affixes can be alternating. Sanskrit deploys eight cases, namely nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative, vocative. Sanskrit includes a fairly large set of stem-types. The linguistic interaction of the roots, the phonological segments, lexical items and the grammar for the Classical Sanskrit consist of four Paninian components. These, states Paul Kiparsky, are the Astadhyaayi, a comprehensive system of 4000 grammatical rules, of which a small set are frequently used; Sivasutras, an inventory of anubandhas markers that partition phonological segments for efficient abbreviations through the pratyharas technique; Dhatupatha, a list of 2000 verbal roots classified by their morphology and syntactic properties using diacritic markers, a structure that guides its writing systems; and, the Ganapatha, an inventory of word groups, classes of lexical systems. There are peripheral adjuncts to these four, such as the Unadisutras, which focus on irregularly formed derivatives from the roots. Sanskrit morphology is generally studied in two broad fundamental categories: the nominal forms and the verbal forms. These differ in the types of endings and what these endings mark in the grammatical context. Pronouns and nouns share the same grammatical categories, though they may differ in inflection. Verb-based adjectives and participles are not formally distinct from nouns. Tense and voice The Sanskrit language includes five tenses: present, future, past imperfect, past aorist and past perfect. It outlines three types of voices: active, passive and the middle. The middle is also referred to as the mediopassive, or more formally in Sanskrit as parasmaipada word for another and atmanepada word for oneself. Vedic Sanskrit is more elaborate and had several additional tenses. For example, the Rigveda includes perfect and a marginal pluperfect. The classical version of the language has elaborate rules for both voice and the tense-apsect system to emphasize clarity, and this is more elaborate than other Indo-European languages. The evolution of these systems can be seen from the earliest layers of the Vedic literature to the late Vedic literature. Gender, mood Sanskrit recognizes three numbers — singular, dual, and plural. The dual is a fully functioning category, used beyond naturally paired objects such as hands or eyes, extending to any collection of two. The elliptical dual is notable in the Vedic Sanskrit, according to Jamison, where a noun in the dual signals a paired opposition. There are three persons in Sanskrit: first, second and third. Sanskrit uses the 3x3 grid formed by the three numbers and the three persons parameters as the paradigm and the basic building block of its verbal system. The Sanskrit language incorporates three genders: feminine, masculine and neuter. All nouns have inherent gender, but with some exceptions, personal pronouns have no gender. Exceptions include demonstrative and anaphoric pronouns. Derivation of a word is used to express the feminine. Two most common derivations come from feminine-forming suffixes, the -ā- आ, Rādhā and -ī- ई, Rukmīnī. The masculine and neuter are much simpler, and the difference between them is primarily inflectional. Similar affixes for the feminine are found in many Indo-European languages, states Burrow, suggesting links of the Sanskrit to its PIE heritage. Pronouns in Sanskrit include the personal pronouns of the first and second persons, unmarked for gender, and a larger number of gender-distinguishing pronouns and adjectives. Examples of the former include ahám first singular , vayám first plural and yūyám second plural. The latter can be demonstrative, deictic or anaphoric. Indicative, potential and imperative are the three mood forms in Sanskrit. Prosody, meter Main article: The Sanskrit language formally incorporates. By the late Vedic era, this developed into a field of study and it was central to the composition of the Hindu literature including the later Vedic texts. This study of Sanskrit prosody is called chandas and considered as one of the six , or limbs of Vedic studies. Sanskrit prosody includes linear and non-linear systems. A syllable in Sanskrit is classified as either laghu light or guru heavy. The classical Sanskrit found in Hindu scriptures such as the and many texts are so arranged that the light and heavy syllables in them follow a rhythm, though not necessarily a rhyme. Sanskrit metres include those based on a fixed number of syllables per verse, and those based on fixed number of per verse. The Vedic Sanskrit employs fifteen metres, of which seven are common, and the most frequent are three 8-, 11- and 12-syllable lines. The Classical Sanskrit deploys both linear and non-linear metres, many of which are based on syllables and others based on diligently crafted verses based on repeating numbers of morae matra per foot. There is no word without meter, nor is there any meter without words. It may have played a role in helping preserve the integrity of the message and Sanskrit texts. The verse perfection in the Vedic texts such as the verse Upanishads and post-Vedic Smriti texts are rich in prosody. This feature of the Sanskrit language led some Indologists from the 19th century onwards to identify suspected portions of texts where a line or sections are off the expected metre. The meter-feature of the Sanskrit language embeds another layer of communication to the listener or reader. A change in metres has been a tool of literary architecture and an embedded code to inform the reciter and audience that it marks the end of a section or chapter. Each section or chapter of these texts uses identical metres, rhythmically presenting their ideas and making it easier to remember, recall and check for accuracy. Authors coded a hymn's end by frequently using a verse of a metre different than that used in the hymn's body. However, The Hindu tradition does not use the Gayatri metre to end a hymn or composition, possibly because it has enjoyed a special level of reverence in Hinduism. Further information: and The early history of writing Sanskrit and other languages in ancient India is a problematic topic despite a century of scholarship, states — an epigraphist and Indologist specializing in Sanskrit and Pali literature. Of the Vedic period that appeared after the Indus Valley Civilization, if any scripts for Vedic Sanskrit existed, they have not survived. Scholars generally accept that Sanskrit originated in an oral society, and that an preserved the extensive Vedic and Classical Sanskrit literature. Other scholars such as Jack Goody state that the Vedic Sanskrit texts are not the product of an oral society, basing this view by comparing inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from various oral societies such as the Greek, Serbian and other cultures, then noting that the Vedic literature is too consistent and vast to have been composed and transmitted orally across generations, without being written down. It contextually refers to scripts, the art or any manner of writing or drawing. The term, in the sense of a writing system, appears in some of the earliest Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina texts. Several early Buddhist and Jaina texts, such as the and Pannavana Sutta include lists of numerous writing scripts in ancient India. However, the reliability of these lists has been questioned and the empirical evidence of writing systems in the form of Sanskrit or Prakrit inscriptions dated prior to the 3rd-century BCE has not been found. If the ancient surface for writing Sanskrit was palm leaves, tree bark and cloth — the same as those in later times, these have not survived. The oldest datable writing systems for Sanskrit are the , the related and the Brahmi derivatives. The Kharosthi was used in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent and it became extinct, while the Brahmi was used in all over the subcontinent along with regional scripts such as Old Tamil. Of these, the earliest records in the Sanskrit language are in Brahmi, a script that later evolved into numerous related Indic scripts for Sanskrit, along with Southeast Asian scripts Burmese, Thai, Lao, Khmer, others and many extinct Central Asian scripts such as those discovered along with the Kharosthi in the Tarim Basin of western and in. The most extensive inscriptions that have survived into the modern era are the rock edicts and pillar inscriptions of the 3rd-century BCE Mauryan emperor , but these are not in Sanskrit. Scripts Sanskrit is written very precisely, states Ruppel. For every sound, it has one sign only, and each Sanskrit sign always represents the same sound. This phonetic aspect of Sanskrit distinguishes it from many of the world's languages. The basic graphic unit of Sanskrit is the aksara, or syllable. However, vowels do not have an independent status in Sanskrit, unlike English and several other Indo-European languages. In Sanskrit, vowels co-exist with the consonants in order to achieve phonetic clarity. The Vedic Sanskrit hymn II. This intimate relationship between the vowels and the consonants are embedded in the numerous writing scripts for the Sanskrit language. Brahmi script One of the oldest Hindu Sanskrit inscriptions, the broken pieces of this early 1st-century BCE were discovered in Rajasthan. It is a dedication to deities Vasudeva-Samkarshana -Balarama and mentions a stone temple. The graphic syllable is its basic unit, and this consists of a consonant with or without diacritic modifications. Since the vowel is an integral part of the consonants, and given the efficiently compacted, fused consonant cluster morphology for Sanskrit words and grammar, the Brahmi and its derivative writing systems deploy ligatures, diacritics and relative positioning of the vowel to inform the reader how the vowel is related to the consonant and how it is expected to be pronounced for clarity. This feature of Brahmi and its modern Indic script derivatives makes it difficult to classify it under the main script types used for the writing systems for most of the world's languages, namely logographic, syllabic and alphabetic. Sanskrit does not have a native script. Being a phonetic language, it can be written in any precise script that efficiently maps unique human sounds to unique symbols. From the ancient times, it has been written in numerous regional scripts in South and Southeast Asia. Most of these are descendants of the Brahmi script. The earliest datable varnamala Brahmi alphabet system, found in later Sanskrit texts, is from the 2nd-century BCE, in the form of terracotta plaques found in. Nagari script Main articles: , , and Many modern era manuscripts are written and available in the Nagari script, whose form is attestable to the 1st millennium CE. The Nagari script is the ancestor of north India , south India and other variants. The Nāgarī script was in regular use by 7th century CE, and had fully evolved into Devanagari and Nandinagari scripts by about the end of the first millennium of the common era. The Devanagari script, states Banerji, became more popular for Sanskrit in India since about the 18th-century. However, Sanskrit does have special historical connection to the Nagari script as attested by the epigraphical evidence. Sanskrit in modern Indian and other Brahmi scripts: May bless those who take delight in the language of the gods. The Nagari script has been thought as a north Indian script for Sanskrit as well as the regional languages such as Hindi, Marathi and Nepali. The Sanskrit and Balinese languages inscription on of Bali Indonesia , dated to about 914 CE, is in part in the Nagari script. The Nagari script used for Classical Sanskrit has the fullest repertoire of characters consisting of fourteen vowels and thirty three consonants. For the Vedic Sanskrit, it has two more allophonic consonantal characters the intervocalic ळ ḷa, and ळ्ह ḷha. To communicate phonetic accuracy, it also includes several modifiers such as the anusvara dot and the visarga double dot, punctuation symbols and others such as the halanta sign. They all have essentially the same set of eleven to fourteen vowels and thirty-three consonants as established by the Sanskrit language and attestable in the Brahmi script. The Sanskrit language written in some Indic scripts exaggerate angles or round shapes, but this serves only to mask the underlying similarities. Nagari script favours symmetry set with squared outlines and right angles. In the south, where predominate, scripts used for Sanskrit include the , , and. Transliteration schemes, Romanisation Main articles: and Since the late 18th century, Sanskrit has been using the. The system most commonly used today is the IAST , which has been the academic standard since 1888. These include and , a transliteration scheme that is used widely on the Internet, especially in Usenet and in email, for considerations of speed of entry as well as rendering issues. With the wide availability of -aware web browsers, IAST has become common online. It is also possible to type using an and transliterate to Devanagari using software like Mac OS X's international support. European scholars in the 19th century generally preferred Devanagari for the transcription and reproduction of whole texts and lengthy excerpts. However, references to individual words and names in texts composed in European Languages were usually represented with Roman transliteration. From the 20th century onwards, because of production costs, textual editions edited by Western scholars have mostly been in transliteration. Epigraphy The earliest known stone inscriptions in Sanskrit are in the Brahmi script from the first century BCE. These include the Uttar Pradesh and near , Rajasthan inscriptions. Other important Hindu inscriptions dated to the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE, in relatively accurate classical Sanskrit and Brahmi script are the on a red sandstone slab and the long on the wall of a cave rest stop in the Western Ghats. Besides these few examples from the 1st century BCE, the earliest Sanskrit and hybrid dialect inscriptions are found in Mathura. These date to the 1st and 2nd-century CE, states Salomon, from the time of the of the early. These are also in the Brahmi script. The earliest of these, states Salomon, are attributed to Ksatrapa from the early years of 1st-century CE. Of the Mathura inscriptions, the most significant is the. In a manner similar to the Hathibada inscription, the Mora well inscription is a dedication inscription and is linked to the tradition of Hinduism. It mentions a stone shrine temple , pratima , images and calls the five Vrishnis as bhagavatam. There are many other Mathura Sanskrit inscriptions in Brahmi script overlapping the era of Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps and early Kushanas. Other significant 1st-century inscriptions in reasonably good classical Sanskrit in the Brahmi script include the and the. The early ones are related to the Brahmanical, except for the inscription from which may be Jaina, but none are Buddhist. Starting about 1st-century BCE, Sanskrit has been written in many South Asian, Southeast Asian and Central Asian scripts In and , Brahmi script Sanskrit inscriptions from the early centuries of the common era exist at the site, near the Girnar mountain of Junagadh and elsewhere such as at , , and Gunda. The dates to the mid 1st century CE, is a fair approximation of standard Sanskrit and has hybrid features. The of ruler c. It represents a turning point in the history of Sanskrit epigraphy, states Salomon. Though no similar inscriptions are found for about two hundred years after the Rudradaman reign, it is important because its style is the prototype of the Sanskrit inscriptions found in the era. These inscriptions are also in the Brahmi script. The inscriptions are the earliest known substantial South Indian Sanskrit inscriptions, probably from the late 3rd-century or early 4th-century CE, or both. These inscriptions are related to Buddhism and the tradition of Hinduism. A few of these inscriptions from both traditions are verse-style in the classical Sanskrit language, while some such as the pillar inscription is written in prose and a hybridized Sanskrit language. An earlier hybrid Sanskrit inscription found on Amaravati slab is dated to the late 2nd-century, while a few later ones include Sanskrit inscriptions along with Prakrit inscriptions related to Hinduism and Buddhism. After the 3rd-century CE, Sanskrit inscriptions dominate and many have survived. Between the 4th and 7th-century CE, south Indian inscriptions are exclusively in the Sanskrit language. In the eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent, scholars report minor Sanskrit inscriptions from the 2nd-century, these being fragments and scattered. The earliest substantial true Sanskrit language inscription of Susuniya is dated to the 4th-century. Elsewhere, such as Dehradun , inscriptions in more or less correct classical Sanskrit inscriptions are dated to the 3rd-century. Generally in accurate classical Sanskrit, they deploy a wide range of regional Indic writing systems extant at the time. They record the donation of a temple or stupa, images, land, monasteries, pilgrim's travel record, public infrastructure such as water reservoir and irrigation measures to prevent famine. Others praise the king or the donor in lofty poetic terms. The Sanskrit language of these inscriptions is written on stone, various metals, terracotta, wood, crystal, ivory, shell and cloth. The evidence of the use of the Sanskrit language in Indic writing systems appears in southeast Asia in the first half of the 1st-millennium CE. A few of these in Vietnam are bilingual where both the Sanskrit and the local language is written in the Indian alphabet. Early Sanskrit language inscriptions in Indic writing systems are dated to the 4th-century in Malaysia, 5th to 6th-century in Thailand near and the Sak River, early 5th-century in Kutai east and mid 5th-century in west Indonesia. Both major writing systems for Sanskrit, the North Indian and South Indian scripts, have been discovered in southeast Asia, but the Southern variety with its rounded shapes are far more common. The Indic scripts, particularly the prototype, spread and ultimately evolved into Mon-Burmese, Khmer, Thai, Laos, Sumatran, Celebes, Javanese and Balinese scripts. From about the 5th-century, Sanskrit inscriptions become common in many parts of South Asia and Southeast Asia, with significant discoveries in Nepal, Vietnam and Cambodia. Texts Main articles: , , , and Sanskrit has been written in various scripts on a variety of media such as palm leaves, cloth, paper, rock and metal sheets, from ancient times. Sanskrit literature by tradition Tradition Sanskrit texts, genre or collection Example References Hinduism Scriptures , , , Language, Grammar Ashtadhyayi Law Dharmasutras, Dharmasastras State craft, politics Arthasastra Timekeeping and Mathematics , , Ganitasastra Life sciences, health Ayurveda, Sushruta samhita, Caraka samhita Sex, emotions Kamasastra Epics Ramayana, Mahabharata, Raghuvamsa Gnomic and didactic literature Subhashitas Drama, dance and performance arts Natyasastra Music Sangitasastra Poetics Kavyasastra Mythology Puranas Mystical speculations, Philosophy Darsana, , , , , , , , , , and others Krishi Agriculture and food Krsisastra Vastu, Shilpa Design, Architecture Shilpasastra Temples, Sculpture Brihatsamhita Samskara rites-of-passage Grhyasutras Buddhism Scripture, Monastic law , Mahayana Buddhist texts, others Jainism Theology, philosophy , Mahapurana and others For nearly 2,000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across , , , and to a certain extent. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of —the and Mahabharata. The deviations from in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from , or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa आर्ष , meaning 'of the ', the traditional title for the ancient authors. Indic languages Sanskrit has had a historical presence and influence in many parts of Asia. All modern , as well as and have borrowed many words either directly from Sanskrit words , or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan languages words. Words originating in Sanskrit are estimated at roughly fifty percent of the vocabulary of modern Indo-Aryan languages, as well as the literary forms of and. Literary texts in are Sanskrit or Sanskritised to an enormous extent, perhaps seventy percent or more. Sanskrit words are often preferred in the literary texts in Marathi over corresponding colloquial Marathi word. Interaction with other languages Buddhist Sanskrit has had a considerable influence on East Asian languages such as Chinese, state William Wang and Chaofen Sun. Many words have been adopted from Sanskrit into the Chinese, both in its historic religious discourse and everyday use. This process likely started about 200 CE and continued through about 1400 CE, with the efforts of monks such as Yuezhi, Anxi, Kangju, Tianzhu, Yan Fodiao, Faxian, Xuanzang and Yijing. Further, as the Chinese language and culture influenced the rest of East Asia, the ideas in Sanskrit texts and some of its linguistic elements migrated further. Sanskrit has also influenced , mostly through translations of. Many terms were transliterated directly and added to the Chinese vocabulary. Many Sanskrit texts survive only in Tibetan collections of commentaries to the Buddhist teachings, the. Sanskrit was a language for religious purposes and for the political elite in parts of medieval era Southeast Asia, Central Asia and East Asia. In , languages such as and contain many from Sanskrit, as do. Other Austronesian languages, such as and , also derive from Sanskrit. Similarly, such as have , although more are derived from. A Sanskrit loanword encountered in many Southeast Asian languages is the word , or spoken language, which is used to refer to the names of many languages. Sanskrit has also influenced the religious register of Japanese mostly through transliterations. These were borrowed from Chinese transliterations. In particular, the lit. See also: Liturgy, ceremonies and meditation Sanskrit is the sacred language of various Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. It is used during worship in. In , it is used in all monasteries, while and religious texts and sutras are in Sanskrit as well as vernacular languages. Some of the revered texts of Jainism including the , , the and the are in Sanskrit. Further, states , Sanskrit mantras and Sanskrit as a ritual language was commonplace among Jains throughout their medieval history. Major festivals such as the ritually recite entire Sanskrit texts such as the every year particularly amongst the numerous communities of eastern India. In the south, Sanskrit texts are recited at many major Hindu temples such as the. According to Richard H. Davis, a scholar of Religion and South Asian studies, the breadth and variety of oral recitations of the Sanskrit text is remarkable. Literature and arts See also: More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since India's independence in 1947. Much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages. The has given an for the best creative work in Sanskrit every year since 1967. In 2009, became the first Sanskrit author to win the , India's highest literary award. Sanskrit is used extensively in the and branches of classical music. The uses musical notations in several of its recessions. In , musicians such as have written in Sanskrit. Numerous loan Sanskrit words are found in other major Asian languages. For example, , , , and its , , old Javanese-English dictionary by contains over 25,500 entries , and even in. Over 90 weeklies, fortnightlies and quarterlies are published in Sanskrit. Since 1974, there has been a short daily news broadcast on state-run. These broadcasts are also made available on the internet on AIR's website. Sanskrit news is broadcast on TV and on the internet through the DD National channel at 6:55 AM IST. Sanskrit festival at , Mysore, India. The of India CBSE , along with several other state education boards, has made Sanskrit an alternative option to the state's own official language as a second or third language choice in the schools it governs. In such schools, learning Sanskrit is an option for grades 5 to 8 Classes V to VIII. This is true of most schools affiliated with the ICSE board, especially in states where the official language is. Sanskrit is also taught in traditional throughout India. A number of in India have dedicated departments for Sanskrit studies. In the West in , England, offers Sanskrit as part of the curriculum. In , the private boys' high school offers Sanskrit from years 7 through to 12, including for the. European studies and discourse See also: European scholarship in Sanskrit, begun by 1620—1668 and 1681—1731 , is considered responsible for the discovery of an Indo-European language family by 1746—1794. This research played an important role in the development of Western , or historical linguistics. The 18th- and 19th-century speculations about the possible links of Sanskrit to ancient Egyptian language were later proven to be wrong, but it fed an orientalist discourse both in the form Indophobia and Indophilia, states Trautmann. Scholars such as William Jones and his colleagues felt the need for systematic studies of Sanskrit language and literature. This launched the Asiatic Society, an idea that was soon transplanted to Europe starting with the efforts of in Britain, then who helped expand its studies to Paris and thereafter his student Friedrich Schlegel who introduced Sanskrit to the universities of Germany. Schlegel nurtured his own students into influential European Sanskrit scholars, particularly through and. The that was commenced in 1983 by the has named the five missiles ballistic and others that it developed , , , and the. India's first modern fighter aircraft is named. The closing credits of has a prayer from the. The lyrics include the mantra Om shanti. Composer featured choirs singing in Sanskrit for and in. It is the language evidenced by the undeciphered Harrapan script from the 3rd millennium BCE. Indian texts in Sanskrit were already in China by 402 CE, carried by the influential Buddhist pilgrim who translated them into Chinese by 418 CE. The Mycenaean Greek equivalent is Zeus Pater, which evolved to Jupiter in Latin. Harry Falk in his 1993 overview states that ancient Indians neither knew nor used writing script, and Pāṇini's mention is likely a reference to Semitic and Greek scripts. According to Hartmut Scharfe, Lipi of Pāṇini may be borrowed from the Old Persian Dipi, in turn derived from Sumerian Dup. It is even less likely, states Norman, that a writing script was invented during Ashoka's rule, starting from nothing, for the specific purpose of writing his inscriptions and then it was understood all over South Asia where the Ashoka pillars are found. Falk disagrees with Goody, and suggests that it is a Western presumption and inability to imagine that remarkably early scientific achievements such as Pāṇini's grammar 5th to 4th century BCE , and the creation, preservation and wide distribution of the large corpus of the Brahmanic Vedic literature and the Buddhist canonical literature, without any writing scripts. It is fair to expect that we believe that Vedic memorisation — though without parallel in any other human society — has been able to preserve very long texts for many centuries without losing a syllable. According to Sanskrit epics scholar John Brockington, the earliest layer of the Ramayana epic was composed about the 5th to the 4th-century BCE. Other recent scholarly estimates are around the 4th-century BCE, give or take a century. The thirty million estimate is of , a manuscriptologist and historian. Sounds in grey are not phonemic. Sounds in grey are not phonemic. Similar morphology is found in some other Indo-European languages; for example, in the , baira I carry , bairis you carry , bairiþ he carries. It may also reflect that the text is a compilation of works of different authors and time periods. The Buddhist texts list the sixty four lipi that the Buddha knew as a child, with the Brahmi script topping the list. The list may be a later interpolation. The canonical texts such as the Pannavana Sutta — probably older than the Buddhist texts — list eighteen writing systems, with the Brahmi topping the list and Kharotthi Kharoshthi listed as fourth. English has many ways of pronouncing the same letters. Ruppel gives the example of ough and the different ways it is pronounced in thor ough, thr ough and t ough. English also represents the same sound with different letters. Ruppel gives the example of ea as in m eal, th ief , s ee and rec eive. This is not the case with Sanskrit, a language where unique sounds are precisely mapped to unique letters. The only known similarity is found in the Ethiopic scripts, but Ethiopic system lacks clusters and the Indic set of full vowels signs. By about the 14th-century, with the Islamic armies conquering more of the Indian subcontinent, the use of Sanskrit language for inscriptions became rarer and it was replaced with Persian, Arabic, Dravidian and North-Indo-Aryan languages, states Salomon. The Sanskrit language, particularly in bilingual formet, re-emerged in the epigraphy of Hindu kingdoms such as the Vijayanagara, Yadavas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and others that re-established themselves. Some Muslim rulers such as Adil Shah also issued Sanskrit language inscriptions recording the donation of a mosque. The list of phonetically transcribed and semantically translated words from Sanskrit into Chinese is substantial, states Xiangdong Shi. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. The spread of South Asian cultural influence to Southeast Asia, meant that Sanskrit was also used in these areas, especially in a religious context and political elites. Sanskrit probably never functioned as an everyday medium of communication anywhere in the cosmopolis—not in South Asia itself, let alone Southeast Asia... The work Sanskrit did do... The date makes Sanskrit one of the three earliest of the well-documented languages of the Indo-European family - the other two being Old Hittite and Myceanaean Greek - and, in keeping with its early appearance, Sanskrit has been a cornerstone in the reconstruction of the parent language of the Indo-European family - Proto-Indo-European. Institutum Slavicum Universitatis Gothoburgensis. If on the other hand 'Sanskrit' is used more strictly of the Panini-Patanjali language or 'Classical Sanskrit,' then it is untrue to say that any Prakrit is derived from Sanskrit, except that Sauraseni, the Midland Prakrit, is derived from the Old Indian dialect of the Madhyadesa on which Classical Sanskrit was mainly based. University of Pittsburgh Press. Faxian: Chinese Buddhist Monk. Semitic and Indo-European, Volume 2. The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Retrieved 17 July 2018. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Retrieved 17 July 2018. Retrieved 23 October 2017. L'Inde Classique, manuel des etudes indiennes, vol. Les Belles Lettres, Paris, 2001. John Benjamins Publishing Company. Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Schrift im alten Indien: ein Forschungsbericht mit Anmerkungen in German. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur. Very little is known about its origin. We do not know where it was spoken or if it originally was a spoken language at all. The ancient Ceylonese tradition says that the Buddha himself spoke Magadhi and that this language was identical to Pali. The Sanskrit Cosmopolis, A. Leiden New York: E. V Govindaraju and S Setlur, ed. University of Pennsylvania Press. Ideology and status of Sanskrit: contributions to the history of the Sanskrit language. Leiden New York: E. Kachru, Braj B, ed. Studies in the linguistic Sciences. Comparative Studies in Society and History. Cambridge University Press CUP. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Wang; Chaofen Sun 2015. University of California Press. Lewis; Subarna Man Tuladhar 2009. University of Chicago Press. Census of India, 2001. Office of the Registrar and Census Commissioner, India. Archived from on 11 April 2009. Retrieved 31 December 2009. Jo Arthur Shoba and Feliciano Chimbutane, ed. The Times of India. Kathmandu: Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal. Archived from PDF on 28 December 2013. Christopher Key Chapple, ed. State University of New York Press. Poona Orientalist: A Quarterly Journal Devoted to Oriental Studies. State University of New York Press. Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. According to Lalitavistara, there were as many as sixty-four scripts in India. Thomas Jefferson University Press. In the premodern period, in other words, these languages would be written by a given scribe in whatever happened to be the current local script... State University of New York Press. A Grammar of Epic Sanskrit. Berlin New York: Walter de Gruyter. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit grammar and dictionary. Classical Telugu poetry an anthology. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press. A Grammar of the Marathi Language. Wang; Chaofen Sun 2015. Many words have crossed the line from religious discourse to everyday use. Wang; Chaofen Sun 2015. Siddham: an essay on the history of Sanskrit studies in China and Japan. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan. Passport India 3rd Ed. University of California Press. University of California Press. New Delhi: Standard publishers India. New Delhi: Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan. Retrieved 28 October 2014. Modern Sanskrit writing is qualitatively of such high order that it can easily be treated on par with the best of Classical Sanskrit literature, It can also easily compete with the writings in other Indian languages. Retrieved 28 October 2014. Many of the modern Sanskrit writings are qualitatively of such high order that they can easily be treated at par with the best of classical Sanskrit works, and they can also be judged in contrast to the contemporary literature in other languages. Retrieved May 5, 2015. Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook. Mon Khmer Studies 22: 1—26. University of California Press. Retrieved 8 October 2017. Archived from on 12 May 2015. Archived from on 15 March 2015. International Journal of Current Engineering and Technology E-ISSN: 2277—4106. Croaking frogs: a guide to Sanskrit metrics and figures of speech. Los Angeles: Mahodara Press. Archived from on 31 October 2014. Archived from on 11 October 2003. The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. A companion to Sanskrit literature: spanning a period of over three thousand years, containing brief accounts of authors, works, characters, technical terms, geographical names, myths, legends, and several appendices. The Study of Indo-European Vocalism in the 19th Century: From the Beginnings to Whitney and Scherer: A Critical-Historical Account. University of Lausanne, Switzerland; Vidyapith Varanasi, India: 396—423. The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 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While roots are typical in Sanskrit, some words do not follow the luv meaning in sanskrit structure. Archived from on 31 October 2014. University of California Press. अभिष्य abhiṣya स्य sya न्दः ndḥ अभिष्य स्य न्दः 1 Oozing, flowing, trickling. Indian texts in Sanskrit were already in China by 402 CE, met by the influential Buddhist pilgrim who translated them into Chinese by 418 CE. In the south he is usually regarded as the first teacher of science and literature to the primitive Dravidian tribes, and his era is placed by Dr. With the wide availability of -aware web custodes, IAST has become common online. Name of the god of love m.